IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute

Incineration is the dominant treatment for residual waste in Sweden. It is desirable to reach complete thermal oxidation of chemical substances in the incineration process to destroy toxic substances contained in waste. Otherwise, there is a risk of toxic substances being released into the environment through incineration residuals. This project has investigated to which extent Swedish waste incineration plants emit PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) via bottom ash, fly ash and condensate water. 

Of 38 incineration plants in Sweden, 27 (in total 31 furnaces) joined the project, answered questionnaires about operating parameters, and sampled incineration residuals. Five samples from each matrix, fly ash, bottom ash, or condensate water, were collected during a two-week period to compensate for the variation over time. 

The collected samples of bottom ash, fly ash and condensate were analysed for 27 different PFAS according to a methodology developed by IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, based on LC-MS / MS. Out of the 27 incineration plants in this project, five plants had no samples with PFAS-27 concentrations above the analytical limit of detection in any of the matrices. Generally, the results show low concentrations in the sampled matrices from most plants, with a few exceptions. No apparent relationships were found between the analysed concentrations of PFAS in the sampling matrices and the operational data.

Prov från svensk yttre miljö har analyserats på en eller flera av ämnesgrupperna fenolära ämnen, ftalater, kvartära ammoniumföreningar och tennorganiska föreningar. Proven omfattar främst vatten och slam från kommunala reningsverk, ytvatten och sediment. Sediment har även analyserats på diuron, irgarol 1051, DCOIT (Sea nine 211) och capsaicin

A screening study has been performed concerning Dechlorane Plus (DP). DP is a chlorinated flame retardant that has been used for a long time but has not been noticed as an environmental contaminant until recently. The main reason for its concern is its similarity to other known chloro organic chemicals with adverse effects to the environment. DP was present in air at background locations (Råö, Aspvreten, Pallas) and in higher concentrations in urban air (Stockholm). This supports that DP is capable of long range transport and, as no traditional point sources are known, supposedly emitted from products used in urban areas, such as plastics in electrical insulators. DP was also deposited from the atmosphere. The concentration in air was in the same magnitude as for the brominated diphenyl ether congeners BDE-47 and BDE-99.

Denna undersökning är en del av en pilotstudie ”Kemikaliesmarta åtgärder i förskola”där kemikaliebelastningen i innemiljön ska kartläggas och bedömas i 1) en förskola före och efter en ombyggnad samt 6 månader efter ombygganden då förskolan åter är i drift; 2) en nybyggd förskola; 3) en förskola före och efter att kemikaliesmarta åtgärder på nivå 1 i enlighet med dokumentet Vägledning för kemikaliesmart förskola har tillämpats.

Målet med detta delprojekt är att kartlägga förekomsten av hälsofarliga ämnen i en förskola där de kemikaliesmarta åtgärderna ska genomföras. I denna rapport redovisas resultat från det tredje delprojektet för förskolan Korpen i Hägersten/Liljeholmens stadsdelsförvaltning, före genomförande av de kemikaliesmarta åtgärderna.

Här rapporterar vi förekomsten av flyktiga organiska ämnen (VOC Volatile Organic Compounds, totalhalt uttryckt som TVOC Total VOC) i luft samt förekomsten av semiflyktiga organiska ämnen (SVOC Semivolatile Organic Compounds) i luft och damm från förskolans innemiljö samt i tillhörande materialprover från golv, mattor/halkskydd och vilomadrass. De relevanta SVOC-ämnena var ftalater och alternativa mjukgörare, organofosfater, polycykliska aromatiska kolväten (PAH), bisfenoler samt bromerade flamskyddsmedel (BFR), bl.a. polybromerade difenyletrar (PBDE) . Tre luftprover analyserades med avseende på VOC och SVOC och tre dammprov och sex materialprov (PVC-golv, halkskydd under en samlingsmatta, överdrag på och skumgummi från en vilomadrass) analyserades med avseende på SVOC.

TVOC i förskolans luft var jämförbara med medianhalten av TVOC i en genomsnittlig svensk bostad. Aldehyder och alkoholer var de ämnesgrupper som fanns i högst halter i luftproverna. Mätresultaten visade att organofosfater, PAH:er samt ftalater och alternativa mjukgörare var de SVOC-ämnesgrupper som förekom i högst halter i luftprover. Ftalater och alternativa mjukgörare var den SVOC-ämnesgrupp som dominerade sammansättningen i damm och material, följda av organofosfater. De lågmolekylära ämnena i varje ämnesgrupp återfanns i högre halter i luftproverna och de högmolekylära ämnena återfanns i högre halter i dammproverna.

Mätresultaten från denna studie har jämförts med andra nationella och internationella studier i förskolemiljö. Jämförelsen visar att halterna i denna studie var i samma storleksordning som, eller lägre än, motsvarande halter av respektive ämnen i inomhusluft och damm från andra studier med undantag för halterna av ftalaten DiNP samt bromerade flamskyddsmedel (BFR) i damm som var högre än tidigare publicerade resultat. Jämförelse med en färsk svensk studie av halter och beräknad exponering för farliga kemikalier i damm från 100 förskolor visar att barn i denna förskola exponeras på ungefär samma låga nivå som barn från de andra förskolorna.

Resultaten indikerar att förbudet mot det bromerade flamskyddsmedlet PBDE har haft effekt, med lägre halter i förskolan, medan förbuden mot andra flamskyddsmedel, HBCD och BDE 209, ännu inte givit effekt. Resultaten för nya flamskyddsmedel, EBFR indikerar att vissa av dessa BFR används som ersättare för de förbjudna ämnena.

Det bör noteras att några förbjudna bromerade flamskyddsmedel har påträffats i högre halter än förväntat i de utrymmen som undersöktes. I denna förskola ska kemikaliesmarta åtgärder för att minska förekomsten av farliga kemikalier i barnens miljö genomföras. Det är motiverat att undersöka möjliga källor till dessa BRF, innan kemikaliesmarta åtgärder vidtas.

Denna undersökning är en del av en pilotstudie ”Kemikaliesmarta åtgärder i förskola”där kemikaliebelastningen i innemiljön ska kartläggas och bedömas i 1) en förskola före och efter en ombyggnad samt 6 månader efter ombygganden då förskolan åter är i drift; 2) en nybyggd förskola; 3) en förskola före och efter att kemikaliesmarta åtgärder på nivå 1 i enlighet med dokumentet Vägledning för kemikaliesmart förskola har tillämpats.

Målet med detta delprojekt är att kartlägga förekomsten av hälsofarliga ämnen i en nybyggd förskola som tillämpat SISABs vägledning för kemikaliesmart förskola genom miljöstyrningsrutiner som innefattade kemikaliekrav på byggprodukter. I denna rapport redovisas resultat från delprojektet för den nybyggda förskolan Hovet i Stockholm, Hägersten/Liljeholmens stadsdelsförvaltning.

Här rapporterar vi förekomsten av flyktiga organiska ämnen (VOC Volatile Organic Compounds) i luft samt förekomsten av semiflyktiga organiska ämnen (SVOC Semivolatile Organic Compounds) i luft och damm från förskolans innemiljö samt i tillhörande materialprover från golv, matta och vilomadrass. De relevanta SVOC-ämnena var ftalater och alternativa mjukgörare, organofosfater, polycykliska aromatiska kolväten (PAH), bisfenoler samt polybromerade difenyletrar (PBDE) och andra bromerade flamskyddsmedel. Tre luftprover analyserades med avseende på VOC och SVOC och tre prover vardera av damm och material (halkskydd under en samlingsmatta, överdrag på en vilomadrass och PVC-golv) analyserades med avseende på SVOC.

Totalhalterna av flyktiga organiska ämnen (TVOC) i förskolans luft var jämförbara med medianhalten av TVOC i en genomsnittlig svensk bostad. Aldehyder, alkoholer och organiska syror var de ämnesgrupper som fanns i högst koncentration i luftproverna. Mätresultaten visade att ftalater och organofosfater var de SVOC som förekom i högst halter i prov från luft, damm och material. De lågmolekylära ämnena i varje ämnesgrupp återfanns i högre halter i luftproverna och de högmolekylära ämnena återfanns i högre halter i dammproverna.

Mätresultaten från denna studie har jämförts med andra nationella och internationella studier i förskolemiljö. Jämförelsen visar att halterna i denna studie var i samma storleksordning som, eller lägre (i vissa fall mycket lägre) än, motsvarande halter av respektive ämnen i inomhusluft och damm från andra studier. Jämförelsen med en färsk svensk studie av halter och beräknad exponering för farliga kemikalier i damm från 100 förskolor visar att barn i denna förskolan löper ytterligare lägre risk för exponeringen än de redan väldigt låga riskeran i de andra förskolorna.

En viktig slutsats är att de tillståndspliktiga (konstaterat farliga) ftalaterna samt PBDE och HBCD som har förbjudits eller reglerats, finns i ytterst låga halter i denna förskola, vilket visar att SISAB:s arbete med att ställa miljökrav med avseende på farliga kemikalier har gett effekt.

IVL and NILU have during 2008/2009 as an assignment from HELCOM, performed a screening study in the eastern Baltic Sea environment on the occurrence of eight of the substances/substance groups identified as hazardous under the Baltic Sea Action Plan.     Of the eight substances or substance classes included in the study, six of them were found above LOQ; organic tin compounds, PBDEs, PFAS, nonylphenol, chlorinated paraffins and endosulfan (endosulfan sulphate). Substances that occurred in fish samples from all sampling sites were; TBT, PBDEs (BDE 47 and BDE 100), PFAS (PFOS), chlorinated paraffins (SCCP), and endosulfan (endosulfan sulphate). Additionally, bisphenol A was found in fish from almost all sampling sites. PFAS (PFOS and PFOA), octyphenol and nonylphenol were found in one, one and six water samples, respectively. No obvious differences in concentrations could be seen between the sampling sites classified as background areas and affected areas. Furthermore, no clear general differences between affected sites could be seen. Concentrations found for the different substances were lower or in the same range as previously reported from other areas of the Baltic Sea, thus the eastern Baltic Sea environment does not seem to be more polluted compared to the Baltic Sea in general. For all the substances, except TBT, concentrations found were below reported PNEC values. However, for TBT, concentrations in several fish muscle samples were close to or above the PNEC value estimated for protection of human health considering consumption of fishery products. Additionally, PFOS levels in fish liver exceeded the PNEC value regarding secondary poisoning of predators in six samples, but PFOS levels in fish muscle were not measured in this study.

Oil spills, the most frequent environmental incidents in Sweden, have decreased in recent years but still pose risks to drinking water and aquatic ecosystems, with about 600 cases registered annually by the Swedish Fire Protection Association. Yet, detailed information about modern fuels and their environmental and human health impacts remains scarce. Hence, this study focuses on enhancing the understanding of the environmental impact of common fuels.This study collected thirty fuel samples of different types: petrol, diesel, fuel oil, and marine gas oil. A selected number of substances in the fuels and the water-soluble phase were analysed using GC-MS.

A crucial step in the analytical method in this project, since the focus was on the effect on sub-surface aquatic life and drinking water production, was to form a stable water-accommodated fraction (WAF) where non-dissolved fuel elements were separated from the water. Since odour properties were of interest, the mixing was extensive, with limited space allowed for gases, meaning that more volatile organic carbons (VOC:s) would be in solution. The chemical analysis focused on identifying and quantifying 50 substances, including aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, ethers, and esters, plus 17 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH:s) for eight of the samples. These substances were chosen for their significance in interpreting results related to odour and to illustrate the proportion of light and heavy substances in the fuels.Twelve of the thirty fuel samples were selected for odour threshold testing, where a dilution series from the WAF was used to evaluate the intensity of odours at different concentrations. Six samples were chosen for ecotoxicological assessments on crustaceans, algae, and bacteria, offering a comprehensive understanding of the ecotoxicity of the fuel-water mixtures. Four samples were used in tailor-made evaporation experiments to study how volatile fuel components evaporate from the water surface under different temperatures and ethanol concentrations.For odour, three fuels were notably distinguished, namely the fuels containing higher concentrations of ether: 98 Octane petrol and E85 fuel.

While there was significant variability in odour thresholds among different panel members, the concentration of MTBE (Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether) in the fuel-water mixtures was generally identified as a precise predictor of odour. Conversely, the lack of ether in diesel fuels made them significantly less prone to cause odour in the WAF.Generally, petrol-specific substances dissolve more readily in water than those in diesel, which only marginally ended up in the water-accommodated fraction. However, ethanol in petrol and RME (rapeseed methyl ester) in diesel favoured the dissolution of hydrocarbons into water. For ether, which is of utmost importance for odour, a strong correlation was observed between the concentration of ether in water and its content in the fuel. Therefore, it is possible to predict the ether concentration in the WAF solely from ether concentration in the fuel, meaning that ethanol did not significantly increase ether solubility.In the case of a fuel spill into surface water, volatile substances like ether or toluene evaporate into the air, reducing the water concentration. The experimental conditions in this study do not reflect actual real-world conditions. The evaporation experiments showed that the evaporation of ether can be predicted based on the WAF ether concentration, water temperature, and ethanol content. It was found that cold water (5 °C) conditions reduce the evaporation rate of ether to almost negligible levels.The ecotoxicological tests showed reproduction inhibitions in crustaceans across all fuel samples. However, the inhibiting effect from HVO (hydrogenated vegetable oil) was only marginally greater than that of the control. Fuel oil and some petrol fuels had detrimental effects on the algae growth, while diesel did not.

The decrease of luminescence of bacteria, an indicator of toxicity, exhibited a similar trend; petrol fuels inhibited luminescence more than diesel. None of the fuels disturbed activated sludge to the extent that respiration was inhibited at toxic levels. This shows that an active sludge is more robust than single organisms, probably due to the diverse bacteria flora.For a drinking water producer, fuels containing water-soluble ethers, such as E85 and 98 Octane petrol, are the most prominent risk. If a spill occurs in the drinking water supply, the production disturbance likelihood depends on the dilution prerequisites below the odour threshold of 1.5-4 µg/L. The study also shows that modern diesel has become an issue of marginal concern for surface water-based raw water sources due to very low solubility and regulations that have reduced the amounts of toxic substances in the products.For freshwater ecosystems, water-soluble petrol-associated substances and hydrophobic toxic substances in fuel oil or EU diesel have the most severe effects during a spill. However, MK1 and HVO diesel only marginally affected the test organisms compared to the control, which represents unaffected organisms.

Fuel spills pose significant environmental risks, particularly to drinking water sources and aquatic ecosystems. Thecomposition of fuels has changed over the decades to reduce fossil greenhouse gas emissions. In Sweden, althoughthe number of spill incidents has declined, with around 600 cases reported annually, there remains limitedknowledge on the environmental and health impacts of modern fuels.

This study aimed to address this gap throughcomprehensive chemical analysis and ecotoxicological assessments of 31 fuel samples, including petrol, diesel, fueloil, and marine gas oil. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), we determined 53 substances,including aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, ethers, esters, and 17 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Akey focus was on forming a stable water-accommodated fraction (WAF) to isolate non-dissolved fuel elementsfrom water, which is crucial for assessing subsurface aquatic life and drinking water production impacts. Resultsindicated significant differences in fuel odor profiles, with ethers enhancing odor intensity. Petrol componentsshowed higher water solubility than diesel, partly due to ethanol. Ecotoxicological tests revealed varying toxicityacross fuels, with petrol showing the highest toxicity to aquatic organisms, although activated sludge exhibitedresilience.

Fuels containing water-soluble ethers posed the highest risks to drinking water, while modern diesel wasof lower concern due to its low solubility and toxicity. In freshwater ecosystems, petrol and hydrophobic toxins infuel oil had severe effects during spills. Overall, this study offers critical insights into the environmental impact of common fuels, supporting improved risk assessment and management strategies for spill mitigation and water resource protection.

The composition of vehicle fuels has changed since 2018 due to the reduction obligation, which requires that an increasing proportion of bio-based content is mixed into fossil fuels. Since properties such as odour and ecotoxicity are complex and depend on the composition of substances' mixtures, information based on older studies is not applicable. Odour properties are essential for drinking water producers, and ecotoxicity is vital for prioritising remediation efforts in the event of spillage.

The objectives of this study have therefore been to 1) quantify the composition of standard diesel and petrol fuels sold in Sweden, 2) quantify odour thresholds for these fuels in drinking water, 3) investigate the ecotoxicity from HVO (hydrogenated vegetable oil) and diesel with RME additive (rapeseed methyl ester), and 4) investigate whether it is possible to predict odour in water based on concentrations in a fuel/water mixture.In the study, a total of eight fuels were tested, of which four were diesel fuels (HVO 100, MK1 diesel with HVO, MK1 diesel with RME and MK1 diesel) and four contained petrol/ethanol to varying degrees (E85, E05, E10 with bio-petrol and E10). HVO 100 and MK1 diesel with RME were used for ecotox tests on alga, bacteria, and crustaceans, as well as for degradation tests.Petrol/ethanol fuels were more efficiently dissolved in water than diesel fuels. This is because they contain a higher proportion of more water-soluble substances, such as ethers and light aromatic compounds, and the mixture of ethanol in the fuels. The E85 fuel resulted in the highest concentrations of hydrocarbons in the water mixture, even though the proportion of petrol is only 15%. A similar effect on solubility could be observed for RME in diesel fuels, although not to the same extent.The amounts of dissolved ether determined the odour properties of fuels in water.

The 98 octane E05 fuel had the highest ether concentration in the fuel product, while the ether content of E85 was most effectively dissolved in water due to the high ethanol content. The odour thresholds were at 0.0017% in a water/fuel mixture for the E05 fuel and 0.0042% for E85. The ethers so dominated the odour that the methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) concentration could accurately predict the smell in an aqueous solution.Overall, the ecotoxicological tests showed mild or no effect from the fuels on the tested organisms. The exception was for the reproduction of crustaceans that were disturbed by MK1 diesel with RME. The low solubility of the two tested diesel fuels in water resulted in too low concentrations of hydrocarbons in the fuel/water mixture for valid degradation tests.