IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute

Saltpartiklars inverkan på oxidantbildning har studerats med en atmosfärkemisk trajektoriemodell. Resultaten tyder på att klorbildning från saltpartiklar vid närvaro av luftföroreningar, ozon och kväveoxider har en aktiverande inverkan på de kemiska gasfasprocesserna i atmosfären. Av stor betydelse kan dessa processer vara i kustnära områden om samtidigt stora mängder kväveoxider och andra ämnen som gynnar ozonbildning emitteras. Nitratradikalens inverkan på atmosfärkemin har studerats genom att beakta dess reaktion med alkaner och enklare alkener. Dessa reaktioner fungerar som en buffert av den kemiska aktiviteten i troposfären men de leder istället till förhöjda halter av organiska nitrater och kvävedioxid. Arbetet utgör en lämplig grund för fortsatta studier där en mer detaljerad kvantifiering av saltpartiklar betydelse i olika miljöer skall utvärderas.

I denna studie analyseras de samhällsekonomiska konsekvenserna av att införa skatter och avgifter för svenskt inrikes samt utrikesflyg. Koldioxidskatt, bränsleskatt och NOx-avgifter analyseras. Utifrån två uppsatta scenarier med tänkta emissionsmål för koldioxid och NOx beskrivs kostnaderna för flygsektorn, staten och samhället.

This report is only available in Swedish.

This report is an attempt to investigate the background to the high NO2 levels in Gothenburg and the reason for the slowing decrease in NO2 observed during the last years. Two possible reasons for these observations are investigated: contribution from shipping to NO2 emissions, and increased fraction of NO2 in the NOX emissions from modern diesel engines. The issue was studied through emission measurement, passive sampling, dispersion modelling and atmospheric chemistry studies Two possible reasons for the high NO2 levels in Gothenburg were investigated: 1) increased fraction of NO2 in the NOX emissions from modern diesel engines, and 2) increasing total emission of NOX due to increasing contribution from shipping. The results also showed that local mixing conditions greatly influenced the dispersion of especially local and ground-based emissions This was mainly due to their main location within the Göta älv valleys where the dispersion becomes particularly poor during high pressure conditions. The effect of ship emissions in the Gothenburg area was very dominant along the harbour. At distances of about 1-2 km fromthe harbour area the ship contribution was still more than 30 % of the total NOX concentration level. The modelled concentration data was compared to measurement results from passive sampling performed mainly along the river but also with the continuous monitoring at the Femman site. In general, the NO2 concentrations were underestimated, the SO2 mainly coincided well and the O3 concentrations where somewhat overestimated in the calculations with the TAPM model. Variation in concentrations due to varying weather conditions were reproduced well but the modelled peaks are sometimes lower than the monitored concentration peaks. There are several explanations for the increased proportions of NO2 in the primary emissions of NOX. First the increase in the fraction of diesel vehicles by ca. 15% (as vehicle-km) during the last decade. Diesel vehicles generally have a higher fraction of NO2 in their NOX emissions than gasoline cars. On top of this, the large increase of diesel vehicles over the last decade was accompanied by a simultaneous increase of the NO2 fraction in NOX emissions from diesel trucks with Euro3 and Euro4 standards which became compulsory in 2000 and 2005, respectively. Measurements of NO2 and NOX concentrations in tunnels, and at sites largely dominated by primary emissions, indicated an increase in the NO2/NOX partitioning from 4-6% in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 1990s, to today's 13%. The tunnel-model study indicated that the actual NO2/NOX fraction could be even larger if effects of the NO2 sinks in the tunnel are taken into account. The modelling results show that the increase in the NO2 share of the NO2 concentrations was greatest close to the sources since the NO in the primary emission reacted with ambient ozone forming NO2 on a time-scale of minutes and the NO2/NOX ratio quickly increased, approaching a photo-stationary state between NO, NO2 and ozone. The simultaneous measurements of NO2, NO (or NOX) and ozone indicated that the fraction of primary and secondary NO2 in the city varied largely depending on mixing and photochemical conditions. A sensitivity study with the city scale dispersion model was performed by raising the NO2/NOX emission ratio from 5 to 20%. The change in NO2 concentrations showed that the effect of the higher share of NO2 within the NOx emissions can affect the NO2 concentration level close to the source up to a distance of about 500-700m. The chemical development in ship plumes was studied with a detailed photochemical plume model to ensure that the simple chemistry treatment of the TAPM model accurately described the processes affecting the NO/NO2 distribution and NOX oxidation. Comparison of the detailed chemistry with the simplified version showed a significant similarity during day hours when chemistry is, to a large extent, driven by NO2 photolysis. The night-time chemistry of NOX, driven by nitrate radical and oxidation of N2O5 is not included in the TAPM chemical scheme which may lead to an underestimation of NOX oxidation during dark hours.

The present report emerge from the Swedish EPA project ?Black carbon — possibilities to reduce emissions and potential effects? to obtain an overall assessment of the opportunities and costs for reducing emissions of "soot" (black carbon - BC) in Sweden and its effects on health, ecosystems and climate. The basic analytical methods and techniques are described and reviewed. Existing and upcoming standards are described. The national BC emission inventory has been evaluated through a thorough basic review of the underlying data and processes as well as comparison with other inventories. The report identifies scientific and technological needs (such as methods for emission estimates and emission measurement) needed to implement mitigation measures and assess its impact.The following major conclusions emerge from this report concerning BC and Organic Carbon (OC);Standardized sampling, measurement and analytic methods for BC and OC are underway. Some major networks have already developed standardized methods giving high quality data. A more general standardization will ensure comparability between networks. So future measurements will have less uncertainty and data should be comparable. However this also means that historic data always shall be used with caution. The total BC and OC emissions reported by different inventories agree fairly well, e.g. results from the GAINS scenario estimates and national inventory agree within 30 — 40 % but estimates of major source types can differ with more than a factor 2. This must be investigated as such errors can affect the mitigation policy. Investigations have been started.There is a great need for national projections for 2020 and 2030 for BC but also the other related climate forcing air pollutants.Other climate forcing air pollutants are besides BC and other particle components and ozone. Besides that they affect climate they have a short life time in the atmosphere, thus called Short Lived Climate Forcing compounds (SLCF). Included in the SLCFs are also methane as it affects ozone chemistry even though it has an intermediate atmospheric life time. Inventories and projections on national policy implementation plans have to be developed keeping in mind that climate and health effects depend not on one component only, e.g. soot but rather a mix of different components. The climate effects can be best reduced by a decrease of CO2 and SLCF, while health effects can be reduced by reduced emissions of particles and ozone precursors. The inventories thus have to include the emissions of all these components for all available reduction technologies to facilitate the development of the best abatement strategy. The analysis shows that all techniques involving combustion should be reviewed concerning emissions of all mentioned components.It is clearly shown that regulation of SLCF can give co-beneficial effects on climate, health and ecosystem. However it cannot replace the abatement of long-lived climate forcers but rather increase the climate response to the abatements. The reductions needed for 2050 and beyond have to be large. Combustion is the basic process in the major common sources 6 for CO2, O3-precursors and particles including BC. Combustion has to be questioned as a part of future sustainable transport systems, energy and heat production.The Swedish abatement costs for different SLCF abatement options varied strongly, in the hypothetical scenarios. However the same abatement options show up as the most cost effective in all scenarios. The three most cost effective options covered about 30% of the present emissions. The most cost effective measures found, e.g. decreasing BC emissions from power production and renewing of domestic fuel wood boilers, are found to be in the same range as CO2 ETS price projected for Sweden in 2020. The cost estimates were in line with other studies. Still, the measures studied represent only a very small fraction of all options available to reduce BC emissions. The cost effectiveness of more alternatives in both the mobile and stationary sectors should be assessed. Fuel efficiency improvements, fuel shifts, as well as scrapping schemes are all potentially interesting options. In conclusion, the options analyzed in this study are found to be effective complements, both from health and climate point of view.

IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet har på uppdrag av Naturvårdsverket undersökt hur stor påverkan utsläpp av ammoniak (NH3) från närliggande jordbruk har på stadsluften i Uppsala, med fokus på halterna av små partiklar (PM2.5) samt potential för utsläpps¬minskningar för att förbättra stadsluften från denna påverkan. Denna fråga är viktig att belysa eftersom utsläppen av NH3 från jordbruket inte förväntas minska i samma takt som utsläpp av andra luftföroreningar. Man har kunnat konstatera, i andra regioner, att det inte bara är viktigt att minska på utsläppen av svavel- och kväveoxider utan att även NH3-utsläppen behöver minskas.

En jämförelse av skillnader i halterna av små partiklar och deras komponenter visar en ökad effekt av jordbruksemissioner av NH3 på vintern, då bidraget ökar från årsmedelvärden på 2,3 % och 1,2 % för regional bakgrund och centrala staden till 3,3 % och 1,6 % för vintermedelvärdet. Skillnaderna mellan säsongerna beror på ett flertal faktorer som exempelvis hur mycket NO3- och SO42- som finns tillgängligt för att bilda partiklar. På vintern är ammoniakutsläppen lägre och NOx- och SOx-utsläppen är relativt sett högre samtidigt som omblandningen är lägre jämfört med övriga delar av året. Detta gör i sin tur att kvoten mellan ammoniak och HNO3 och SO42- är lägre och en större del av ammoniakutsläppen kommer därför att bilda partikelformig NH4+.

Under sommaren är, förutom den högre kvoten mellan NH3 och nitrat och sulfat, även kondensation av nitrat på partiklarna reducerad p.g.a. högre temperaturer vilket begränsar ammoniakens potential att bidra till partiklar ytterligare. Detta innebär att utsläpps¬minskningar av NH3 kan ha större effekt på vintern/hösten med avseende på bildning av sekundära aerosoler än under vår och sommar och kan vara jämförbar med effekten från ytterligare minskningar av SOx- och NOx-utsläpp, även om NH3-utsläppen är högre på våren och sommaren.

This paper describes the new developments of the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) which enable the modelling of pollutant discharges to water from ships. These include nutrients from black/grey water discharges as well as from food waste. Further, the modelling of contaminants in ballast, black, grey and scrubber water, bilge discharges, and stern tube oil leaks are also described as well as releases of contaminants from antifouling paints.

Each of the discharges is regulated by different sections of the IMO MARPOL convention, and emission patterns of different pollution releases vary significantly. The discharge patterns and total amounts for the year 2012 in the Baltic Sea area are reported and open-loop SOx scrubbing effluent was found to be the second-largest pollutant stream by volume. The scrubber discharges have increased significantly in recent years, and their environmental impacts need to be investigated in detail.

The aim of this study was to test the usefulness of polyurethane foam (PUF) passive air samplers as stationary, and, for the first time, as personal samplers for one week’s sampling period of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in occupational air. Routine monitoring of workplace exposure is commonly performed with active sampling. However, active samplers can sometimes be unsuitable; e.g., it is difficult to make time-integrated measurements, longer than one day, and they can be noisy and obstructive. Indoor air quality on ships is an important aspect of the environment which has not been studied extensively on ships. For seafarers, good indoor air quality becomes particularly important as the ship represents both a working and living environment. In this study, measurements were carried out on two occasions on two different ships, at different workplaces, and for various personnel categories. On each ship, measurements were performed before and after a change of the type of fuel that the ships were operating on. We found a considerable wide range of PAHs exposure levels for the various workplaces and personnel categories on the ships. The stationary measurements, sum 32 PAHs, ranged from 33- 39,000 ng m 3 and the personal exposure measurements ranged from 61- 8,400 ng m 3. The results point to that the content of PAHs in the fuel can affect the indoor air environment on the entire ship. Further, the results demonstrate that the PUF sampler can serve as a simple and usable screening tool for estimating and tracking point sources of PAHs in microenvironments. Moreover, this study contributes to increased knowledge of exposure to and sources of PAHs for seafarers.

Environmental considerations, concerning the negative impacts of ship exhaust gases and particles on ambient air quality, are behind the requirements of cleaner marine fuels currently applied in designated emission control areas (ECAs). We investigated the impact of a ship operating on two types of fuel on the indoor air quality onboard. Gaseous and particulate air pollutants were measured in the engine room and the accommodation sections on-board an icebreaker operating first on Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO, 1%-S), and later Marine Diesel Oil (MDO, 0.1%-S). Statistically significant decrease of SO2, NOx, PM2.5 and particle number concentration were observed when the ship was operating on MDO. Due to the higher content of alkylated PAHs in MDO compared to HFO, the concentration of PAHs increased during operation on MDO. The particulate PAHs classified as carcinogens, were similar to or lower in the MDO campaign. Chemical analysis of PM2.5 revealed that the particles consisted mainly of organic carbon and sulfate, although the fraction of metals was quite large in particles from the engine room. Principal Component Analysis of all measured parameters showed a clear difference between HFO and MDO fuel on the indoor environmental quality on-board the ship. This empirical study poses a first example on how environmental policy-making impacts not only the primary target at a global level, but also brings unexpected localized benefits at workplace level. The study emphasizes the need of further investigations on the impact of new marine fuels and technologies on the indoor air environments on board.

In January 2020, new global regulations were implemented to limit the maximum sulphur content in marine fuels. As an alternative to switch to compliant fuels, the regulations allow for installations of exhaust gas cleaning systems, e.g. scrubbers, that enables a continued use of less expensive heavy fuel oils (HFOs).

Characterization of scrubber discharge water shows that the acidified water also becomes enriched with contaminants, and large quantities of metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are thus being discharged directly to the marine environment. When emissions of contaminants to the atmosphere and the marine environment are evaluated simultaneously, the results show that HFO, with scrubbers installed, generates higher emission factors of both metals and PAHs compared to MGO. This highlights the importance of including both the marine and the atmospheric perspective when comparing environmental loads and impact of contaminants from shipping.

För att minska utsläppen av kväveoxider utnyttjas katalytisk eller icke-katalytisk reduktion av kväveoxider till kvävgas med ammoniak i avgaser från bl a energiproduktion. Genom att driva denna reduktion mot mer effektiv NOx-minsknng krävs större mängder ammoniak och sannolikt kommer större utsläpp av ammoniak till luft att erhållas. Ökade ammoniakhalter i rökgasen ger nackdelar i form av problem med restprodukten men eventuellt även i form av effekter i miljön. Eftersom kväveoxider och ammoniak har olika egenskaper vad gäller atmosfärkemi, depositionshastigheter mm är det inte självklart att man kan nöja sig med att studera hur det totala kväveutsläppet förändras. Genom att släppa ut ammoniak i stället för kväveoxider, kan ändrade förhållanden erhållas bl a vad gäller risker för försurning, kvävemättnad och oxidantbildning. Sett ur de flesta miljöaspekter - effekter av förhöjda NOx-halter, oxidantbildning, nationella - internationella utsläppsstrategier för kväve, etc - är NOx-rening med ammoniak enbart positiv. Den förhöjda kvävedepositionen av ammonium i närområdet, som blir följden av ammoniakutsläpp, jämfört med kvävedepositionen förorsakad av större mängder utsläppt NOx utan rening, kan i det lokala perspektivet ytterligare försura mark och bidra till skador på miljön, t ex skador på barrträd i skogsbryn. Bidragen är dock små och har sannolikt endast viss betydelse i områden som redan är starkt försurade och kvävebelastade. Lokalisering av anläggningar med ammoniakutsläpp bör ske till områden med låg svavel- och kvävebelastning.

Denna rapport redovisar resultat från projektet ”Effekten av sjöfartens utsläpp av svavel och kväve på överskridande av kritisk belastning för försurning och för övergödning i Sverige”, Naturvårdsverkets ärendenummer NV-07751-17. Projektet bygger på ett antal utsläppscenarier med fokus på olika sjöfartsemissionsscenarier. Dessa scenarier har tagits fram inom BONUS SHEBA (Sustainable shipping and Environment of the Baltic Sea region) projektet för åren 2012 och 2040. Rapporten visar hur överskridandet av kritisk belastning för försurning och eutrofiering i Sverige påverkas av sjöfarten.

The nonlinear chemistry of ozone formation from oxides of nitrogen causes that NOx emissions, that are in a regional-scale or a global models distributed directly over large grid squares, form more ozone than if they were treated in a gradually dispersing plume. An efficient method of plume parameterisation has been described by Cariolle et al. (2009) where the plume stage of emission is treated as a tracer and parameterised reaction rates for ozone and NOx losses in plume are given for aircraft plume. The rates of reactions affecting ozone, NOx and OH have been studied with a plume model of Lagrangean type and a loss term for NOx and OH in plume is defined for the parameterisation.

We describe resonance effects in laser desorption–ionization (LDI) of particles that substantially increase the sensitivity and selectivity to metals in single-particle mass spectrometry (SPMS). Within the proposed scenario, resonant light absorption by ablated metal atoms increases their ionization rate within a single laser pulse. By choosing the appropriate laser wavelength, the key micronutrients Fe, Zn and Mn can be detected on individual aerosol particles with considerably improved efficiency. These ionization enhancements for metals apply to natural dust and anthropogenic aerosols, both important sources of bioavailable metals to marine environments. Transferring the results into applications, we show that the spectrum of our KrF-excimer laser is in resonance with a major absorption line of iron atoms. To estimate the impact of resonant LDI on the metal detection efficiency in SPMS applications, we performed a field experiment on ambient air with two alternately firing excimer lasers of different wavelengths. Herein, resonant LDI with the KrF-excimer laser (248.3 nm) revealed iron signatures for many more particles of the same aerosol ensemble compared to the more common ArF-excimer laser line of 193.3 nm (nonresonant LDI of iron). Many of the particles that showed iron contents upon resonant LDI were mixtures of sea salt and organic carbon. For nonresonant ionization, iron was exclusively detected in particles with a soot contribution. This suggests that resonant LDI allows a more universal and secure metal detection in SPMS. Moreover, our field study indicates relevant atmospheric iron transport by mixed organic particles, a pathway that might be underestimated in SPMS measurements based on nonresonant LDI. Our findings show a way to improve the detection and source attribution capabilities of SPMS for particle-bound metals, a health-relevant aerosol component and an important source of micronutrients to the surface oceans affecting marine primary productivity.

Shipping is an important source of air pollutants, from the global to the local scale. Ships emit substantial amounts of sulfur dioxides, nitrogen dioxides, and particulate matter in the vicinity of coasts, threatening the health of the coastal population, especially in harbour cities. Reductions in emissions due to shipping have been targeted by several regulations. Nevertheless, effects of these regulations come into force with temporal delays, global ship traffic is expected to grow in the future, and other land-based anthropogenic emissions might decrease. Thus, it is necessary to investigate combined impacts to identify the impact of shipping activities on air quality, population exposure, and health effects in the future. We investigated the future effect of shipping emissions on air quality and related health effects considering different scenarios of the development of shipping under current regional trends of economic growth and already decided regulations in the Gothenburg urban area in 2040. Additionally, we investigated the impact of a large-scale implementation of shore electricity in the Port of Gothenburg. For this purpose, we established a one-way nested chemistry transport modelling (CTM) system from the global to the urban scale, to calculate pollutant concentrations, population-weighted concentrations, and health effects related to NO2, PM2.5, and O3. The simulated concentrations of NO2 and PM2.5 in future scenarios for the year 2040 are in general very low with up to 4 ppb for NO2 and up to 3.5 µg m−3 PM2.5 in the urban areas which are not close to the port area. From 2012 the simulated overall exposure to PM2.5 decreased by approximately 30 % in simulated future scenarios; for NO2 the decrease was over 60 %. The simulated concentrations of O3 increased from the year 2012 to 2040 by about 20 %. In general, the contributions of local shipping emissions in 2040 focus on the harbour area but to some extent also influence the rest of the city domain. The simulated impact of onshore electricity implementation for shipping in 2040 shows reductions for NO2 in the port of up to 30 %, while increasing O3 of up to 3 %. Implementation of onshore electricity for ships at berth leads to additional local reduction potentials of up to 3 % for PM2.5 and 12 % for SO2 in the port area. All future scenarios show substantial decreases in population-weighted exposure and health-effect impacts.

The OP-FLYKLIM project investigated the potential to reduce the climate impact of aviation through climate optimization of flight routes to reduce the high-altitude effects of aviation with a focus on climate forcing from contrails and contrail cirrus under Scandinavian conditions. We have developed a calculation methodology where areas with potential to form persistent contrails are identified. The duration and climate forcing of contrails and contrail cirrus in these areas are calculated using data from SMHI's meteorological forecast model. Information on the position and climate forcing potential of these areas has been used to quantify climate forcing of flights on selected routes over a period of several months, and to test optimization of route planning for reduced climate effect with the flight planning system used by the airline Novair.

Climate forcing from contrails and contrail cirrus during the flight calculated with the OP-FLYKLIM methodology is compared with calculations of climate forcing from the CO2 emitted from combustion of the jet fuel. This enables a direct comparison of the climate benefit of avoidance of contrail formation with its fuel penalty. In the future this method could be deployed in flight planning systems to enable climate optimization. The method can also be used in cost-benefit analyses of climate-optimized flight planning.

We have also investigated several issues that are important for route optimization in general and for correct assessment of whether persistent contrails occur. Meteorological models of good quality in terms of forecasts of winds, temperature and humidity at flight altitude is of great importance both for ordinary route planning and for climate optimization. In OP-FLYKLIM, SMHI has tested streaming data from aircraft (so-called Mode-S EHS data) through air traffic control radars and local data receivers directly to their operational forecast model, which showed improved quality of forecasts.A persistent contrail occurs only if the humidity in the area of the flight is supersaturated relative to ice but is not already containing clouds.

In the project, we have thus investigated the distribution of ice-saturated areas across Scandinavia as an average over several years using data from the ECMWF global numerical weather prediction (NWP) model. The results show a quite high potential for the formation of persistent contrails and thus for high-altitude effects in the area. Comparison to published data on the frequency of occurrence of ice supersaturated layers over Sweden and Europe indicate that observations and model data are broadly consistent. However, when comparing to observed relative humidity with respect to ice (RHI) from radiosondes directly it becomes clear that both the ECMWF model and the MetCoOp model used by SMHI for short range forecasts underestimate RHI near the tropopause, where most flights take place.

As an additional means to evaluate the performance of NWP models with respect to ice supersaturation SMHI initiated observations of contrails by their climate observers. The observations were then matched against flights in the area and RHI calculated by the SMHI forecast model to determine if observations of persistent contrails also corresponded to ice supersaturation in the model. In agreement with the evaluation against radiosondes it was found that the NWP model underestimated RHI in connection with observed contrails.

A correct calculation of fuel consumption and emissions during the flight is a prerequisite both for calculating its high-altitude effects and for monitoring of aviation emissions by national and international authorities. In OP-FLYKLIM the fuel consumption calculated with FOI3 methodology, used for the Swedish reporting of the national emissions from aviation to the UNFCCC and other international reporting obligations, has been compared with true fuel consumption obtained from data from the flight data recorder (FDR data) onboard aircraft on several routes. Comparison showed differences below 10% that could be explained by differences between route plans and type of aircraft in the FDR data and the FOI calculation, respectively.

What emissions and what climate impact does today's aviation have? It is important to create a consensus around this in order to be able to both compare the effects of different fuels and other mitigation measures and to relate the impact of aviation to e.g., other modes of transport. Emissions from aviation are inventoried and reported today at several different levels. Currently the main driver of CO2 emission inventories are regulations targeting emissions of greenhouse gas emissions. This report provides a brief overview of the methods and data used, which stem from various regulations and initiatives. A number of emission calculators is driven by the demand for data to report climate impact from air travel and freight transport and includes emission or climate calculators that focus on emissions of CO2 or CO2 equivalents assigned to a passenger or to volume or mass of cargo on a given route or nominal distance. There is a number of such calculators that use different emission factors, flight parameters, aircraft occupancy and contributions from high-altitude impacts, and thus generate different results. Examples are those of ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization, 2019), NTM (Network for Transport Measures, 2019), IATA (International Air Transport Association, 2019), Atmosfair (Atmosfair, 2019) or Flight Emission Map (Flight Emission Map, 2019). A survey of data and assumptions that form the basis for aviation greenhouse gas emissions and climate calculators and a validation of these by means of data on reported fuel consumption during flights was carried out in the project. For most of the calculators there is a good agreement with the fuel consumption data when the variability of the fuel consumption due to different aircraft types, occupancy, etc., is taken into the account. Three calculators show substantially higher emissions and an analysis indicates that the reason is that they are using obsolete emission factors. The biggest difference between calculators arise from the calculation of CO2 equivalents in which case all use radiation forcing index (RFI) as a measure. The study also included a comparison of SMHI's air emission model with fuel consumption data.

The high-altitude effects of SLCP are crucial in minimizing the climate impact of aviation – for combustion engines these effects will remain even with use of fossil-free fuel. The first important questions associated with the high-altitude effects are their quantification and reduction of uncertainties of the climate impact of the SLCP. RFI used by many climate calculators is a blunt tool if the aim is to target the high-altitude effects as such, as it is related solely to CO2 emissions and the relation to the SLCP radiative forcing is through impact of the historic emissions of aviation up to the date for which the FI is calculated. More appropriate are forward looking metrics considering forcing from actual SLCP species emitted during the flight as global warming potential (GWP) or global temperature potential (GTP). The most important climate forcing components are emissions of CO2 and formation of contrails and contrail cirrus. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) with high hydrogen and low aromatic content emits substantially less soot particles which reduces radiative forcing of the contrails. Model simulations of full implementation of SAF in the current aviation fleet would lead to 20-50 % reduction of RF from contrails and contrail cirrus. A combination of the use of SAF, engine technology with low emissions of soot and NOx and route climate optimisation has the potential to substantially reduce the high-altitude effect.

The most important parameters that influence the air quality in vehicles are the choice of cabin air filter and the air quality outside the vehicle. Real-life driving test methods for measurement in traffic environments developed in AQIFOR project showed repeatable differences between the reduction efficiency of the various cabin air filters in the car ventilation systems. Additional parameters that affected the reduction efficiency for air pollutants in the vehicle were ventilation speed and degree of air recirculation in the ventilation. Different air pollutants are affected differently. All filters tested purified air from particles; the reduction efficiency for PM2.5 was from 40% to over 80% for different filters, particles in the size range 10 - 600 nm were more difficult to clean than larger particles. Filters containing active carbon also purified the air from NO2; reduction efficiency showed similar pattern to reduction efficiency for particles. Sampling for VOC and PAH showed that volatiles are not purified by filters, but the less volatile species are effectively reduced. The project also investigated occupational exposure of professional drivers to air pollution in both passenger cars and trucks. The results showed that the drivers' exposure to benzo (a) pyrene, 1,3-butadiene and benzene was low, well below the working environment limit values.

The Baltic Sea is a severely eutrophicated sea-area where intense shipping as an additional nutrient source is a potential contributor to changes in the ecosystem. The impact of the two most important shipborne nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, on the overall nutrient-phytoplankton-oxygen dynamics in the Baltic Sea was determined by using the coupled physical and biogeochemical model system General Estuarine Transport Model–Ecological Regional Ocean Model (GETM-ERGOM) in a cascade with the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) and the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model. We compared two nutrient scenarios in the Baltic Sea: with (SHIP) and without nutrient input from ships (NOSHIP). The model uses the combined nutrient input from shipping-related waste streams and atmospheric depositions originating from the ship emission and calculates the effect of excess nutrients on the overall biogeochemical cycle, primary production, detritus formation and nutrient flows. The shipping contribution is about 0.3% of the total phosphorus and 1.25–3.3% of the total nitrogen input to the Baltic Sea, but their impact to the different biogeochemical variables is up to 10%. Excess nitrogen entering the N-limited system of the Baltic Sea slightly alters certain pathways: cyanobacteria growth is compromised due to extra nitrogen available for other functional groups while the biomass of diatoms and especially flagellates increases due to the excess of the limiting nutrient. In terms of the Baltic Sea ecosystem functioning, continuous input of ship-borne nitrogen is compensated by steady decrease of nitrogen fixation and increase of denitrification, which results in stationary level of total nitrogen content in the water. Ship-borne phosphorus input results in a decrease of phosphate content in the water and increase of phosphorus binding to sediments. Oxygen content in the water decreases, but reaches stationary state eventually.

Idag står den globala flygtrafiken för ca 2-3% av det fossila CO2-utsläppet härlett från mänskliga aktiviteter. Flygtrafikens bidrag till global uppvärmningen i form av strålningsdrivning är dock 4.9% om man tar hänsyn till effekt från kortlivade klimatföroreningar (short-lived climate pollutants, SLCP) relaterade till flyget, även kallade höghöjdseffekter. Dessa innefattar utsläpp av vattenånga, sot och andra partiklar, bildning av kondensstrimmor och flyginducerade cirrusmoln samt utsläpp av NOX som leder till förändringar av halter av ozon och metan i atmosfären. Det relativa bidraget av SLCP från flyget varierar kraftigt beroende på vilket mått man använder, med GWP20 (Global Warming Potential på en tidshorisont 20 år) ligger total effekt av flygemissionerna relativt till CO2 inom intervallet 2.1-4.8, för GWP100 ligger samma proportion mellan 1.3 och 2.0, använder man Global TemperaturPotential GTP ligger proportionen mellan 1.0 och 1.1 för GTP100.

Klimatpåverkan av SLCP är starkt beroende av atmosfäriska förhållanden där utsläppen sker. Persistenta kondensstrimmor bildas och värmer upp klimatet när flygplan rör sig i områden som har luftfuktighet övermättad mot is och som är molnfri. Även utsläpp av NOx kan ge olika effekter beroende på förhållandena vid utsläpp. Flera studier har utvärderat möjligheterna att optimera flygrutter med hänsyn till både CO2 utsläpp och effekter från SLCP genom att justera var/när största delen av utsläppen sker. Man har visat att trots en högre bränsleförbrukning vid alternativa flygrutter kunde man uppnå en minskad klimatpåverkan med mått GWP100.

Klimatmålet med max. 2° temperaturhöjning kräver mer än en halvering av utsläppen av växthusgaser till år 2050 vilket kräver en bred övergång till alternativa bränslen fria från fossilt kol. För flyget finns ett flertal alternativa jetbränslen (AJF) med lägre halter fossilt kol i sin well-to-wake cykel (WTWk). WTWk minskningen varierar kraftigt med processen som bränslet framställts genom samt vilket råmaterial som använts. Det finns flera negativa effekter kring ändrad markanvändning som är en mycket viktigt hållbarhetsaspekt. Det alternativ som ger störst WTWk minskning är att producera AJF från restprodukter som avfallsolja och skogsrester. För vissa alternativ, som sojabönor och palmolja, ligger WTWk högre hos AJF än hos de konventionella jetbränslena. Dessutom kopplas AJF-produktionen till en konflikt mellan matproduktion och bränsleproduktion, potentiellt minskad biodiversitet, vattenkonsumtion samt föroreningar som uppstår vid produktion vilka inte går att ignorera ur ett hållbarhetsperspektiv.

Facing the problems with global warming and the diminishing supplies of oil, alternative fuels are becoming more and more important for road traffic. Several alternative fuels are being tested such as biogas, alcohols and dimethyl ether (DME).

The study includes the following fuels: replacement of petrol with diesel for light duty vehicles (LDV); natural gas for LDVs; natural gas for heavy duty vehicles (HDV); ethanol for HDVs; biodiesel for HDVs; dimethyl ether (DME) for HDVs. The analysis and modelling are done in four steps: 1) Creating an emission model. This is done for Europe and in more detail for Västra Götaland. 2) Dispersion modelling using EMEP (the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme) for Europe and TAPM (The Air Pollution Model) for the Västra Götaland Region. 3) Calculation of population exposure to different air pollutants in the Västra Götaland Region and 4) health risk assessments.

The emission scenarios for 2020 are constructed for all listed fuels and dispersion modelling is applied to some of them to obtain the human exposure to key air pollutants in the region. The dispersion modelling is performed with the EMEP model for extended Europe and the data obtained are used as boundary conditions for the model for the Västra Götaland region. In the latter, detailed traffic and emissions scenarios are used together with the TAPM model to obtain concentration levels and population exposure. The differences in health impacts are then assessed.

Ship emissions in and around ports are of interest for urban air quality management in many harbour cities. We investigated the impact of regional and local ship emissions on urban air quality for 2012 conditions in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden, the largest cargo port in Scandinavia. In order to assess the effects of ship emissions, a coupled regional- and local-scale model system has been set up using ship emissions in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea as well as in and around the port of Gothenburg. Ship emissions were calculated with the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM), taking into account individual vessel characteristics and vessel activity data. The calculated contributions from local and regional shipping to local air pollution in Gothenburg were found to be substantial, especially in areas around the city ports. The relative contribution from local shipping to annual mean NO2 concentrations was 14 % as the model domain average, while the relative contribution from regional shipping in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea was 26 %. In an area close to the city terminals, the contribution of NO2 from local shipping (33 %) was higher than that of road traffic (28 %), which indicates the importance of controlling local shipping emissions. Local shipping emissions of NOx led to a decrease in the summer mean O3 levels in the city by 0.5 ppb (∼2 %) on average. Regional shipping led to a slight increase in O3 concentrations; however, the overall effect of regional and the local shipping together was a small decrease in the summer mean O3 concentrations in the city. In addition, volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from local shipping compensate up to 4 ppb of the decrease in summer O3 concentrations due to the NO titration effect. For particulate matter with a median aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM2.5), local ship emissions contributed only 3 % to the annual mean in the model domain, while regional shipping under 2012 conditions was a larger contributor, with an annual mean contribution of 11 % of the city domain average. Based on the modelled local and regional shipping contributions, the health effects of PM2.5, NO2 and ozone were assessed using the ALPHA-RiskPoll (ARP) model. An effect of the shipping-associated PM2.5 exposure in the modelled area was a mean decrease in the life expectancy by 0.015 years per person. The relative contribution of local shipping to the impact of total PM2.5 was 2.2 %, which can be compared to the 5.3 % contribution from local road traffic. The relative contribution of the regional shipping was 10.3 %. The mortalities due to the exposure to NO2 associated with shipping were calculated to be 2.6 premature deaths yr−1. The relative contribution of local and regional shipping to the total exposure to NO2 in the reference simulation was 14 % and 21 %, respectively. The shipping-related ozone exposures were due to the NO titration effect leading to a negative number of premature deaths. Our study shows that overall health impacts of regional shipping can be more significant than those of local shipping, emphasizing that abatement policy options on city-scale air pollution require close cooperation across governance levels. Our findings indicate that the strengthened Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) fuel sulphur limit from 1 % to 0.1 % in 2015, leading to a strong decrease in the formation of secondary particulate matter on a regional scale was an important step in improving the air quality in the city.

Severe air pollution events in many parts of China pose a major threat to health and ecosystems. China's air pollution is concentrated to economically developed areas, for instance Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) and Pearl-River-Delta (PRD). The situation has received considerable attention in international and national media including its secondary societal and economic impacts such as lowered productivity, reduced investments and loss of professionals who have the choice of residing elsewhere.

Large efforts are today underway from the Government to improve the situation by measures to reduce primary emissions, see Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (2013-2017), available at http://www.gov.cn. This will also affect secondary pollutants such as ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM) but how and to what magnitude is uncertain. The photochemically induced secondary pollutants will add to any severe local urban air pollution but requires a very different approach for abatements. In this perspective view we will address the complexity of photochemical smog while acknowledging the urge for similar descriptions on local urban air pollution as described elsewher.

The following pilot study has simulated the chemical reactions occurring in an aeroplane exhaust plume using a photochemical atmospheric model.

Det kemiska förloppet i en flygplansplym har i denna pilotstudie simulerats med hjälp av en fotokemisk atmosfärsmodell. De fall som studerats omfattar fyra till tio km:s höjd (den fria troposfären) över ett område i Frankrike (48 N, 2 E). Från det simulerade flygplanets utsläpp har medtagits kväveoxider, kolmonoxid och kolväten uppdelade på 11 komponenter. Haltförloppet av i huvudsak ozon, salpetersyra och organiska nitrater har känslighetsgranskats med avseende på: * tidpunkt för utsläpp * olika utsläpp (flygfaser) * konvektion (plymspridning) * temperatur * ljusförhållanden * bakgrundshalter. Slutligen har fyra olika fall simulerats, där samtliga faktorer som påverkar halterna vid höjderna 4, 6, 8 och 10 km inkluderats. Resultatet visar att alla de ovan nämnda parametrarna har en stor inverkan på haltutvecklingen av ozon, salpetersyra och organiska nitrater. Ozonhalten kommer för de flesta fall att sjunka initialt i plymen, för att senare som mest öka med 1 ppb (2 %). På den högsta höjden som studerats (10 km) kommer endast en minskning av ozonhalten att ske. Halten av salpetersyra ökar på samtliga höjder och ger som mest ett tillskott på 0.4 ppb (30 % ökning). De organiska nitraterna (här i huvudsak HO2NO2 och PAN) följer mer komlicerade förlopp. Vid 4 km höjd ökar de i början av plymen, medan de minskar för övriga höjder. Vid de högre höjderna (6-10 km) kommer ett tillskott senare och når som mest 50 ppt (30 % ökning).

There is an increase in installations of exhaust gas scrubbers on ships following international regulations on sulphur content in marine fuel from 2020. We have conducted emission measurements on a four-stroke marine engine using low sulphur fuel oil (LSFO) and heavy fuel oil (HFO) at different steady state engine loads. For the HFO the exhaust was probed upstream and downstream of an exhaust gas scrubber. While sulphur dioxide was removed with high efficiency in the scrubber, the measurements of particle emissions indicate lower emissions at the use of LSFO than downstream of the scrubber. The scrubber removes between 32% and 43% of the particle mass from the exhaust at the HFO tests upstream and downstream of the scrubber, but levels equivalent to those in LSFO exhaust are not reached. Decreases in the emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH-16) and particulate matter as black carbon, organic carbon and elemental carbon, over the scrubber were observed for a majority of the trials, although emissions at LSFO use were consistently lower at comparable engine power.

An SO2 scrubber is fitted in the exhaust channel in order to reduce SO2 emissions to levels corresponding to the combustion of 0.1% sulphur fuel or lower, as described by the MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 14 on sulphur content in marine fuels used for operations in a SECA.

This report covers two emission measurement campaigns. One set of trials contains benchmark measurements for emissions from operations on low sulphur fuel oil. The second set of trials is conducted after the fitting of an exhaust gas cleaning system on the ship. We compare emissions from LSFO combustion with HFO combustion downstream a scrubber. Both are alternatives that can be used to comply with the existing regulations in the area. We also analyse emission reductions over the scrubber, as measurements were conducted both upstream and downstream the installation.

Our results show that the emissions of sulphur dioxide to air are lower when using high sulphur fuel together with a closed loop scrubber than when a low sulphur fuel oil is used. However, the study also concludes that other important air emissions, apart from sulphur dioxide, are at higher levels than emissions from a low sulphur fuel.

Two simple models have been used to evaluate the possible effect of climate change in respect to changed atmospheric oxidation potential of mercury and re-emission from the oceans. In both cases only the effect of temperature increase was considered. This is an obviously limitation considering the complexity of mercury cycling as a whole. However, the result suggests that in a warmer climate gas phase oxidation of GEM in the marine troposphere may be less efficient causing the mercury concentration in the atmosphere to increase. Simultaneously the mercury re-emission flux from the ocean to the atmosphere tends to increase. If this really is the case it means that part of the oceanic mercury pool will be moved to the atmosphere. The environmental effect of that not obvious. A somewhat higher GEM concentration is not harmful as such, but means that mercury distribution via the atmosphere could be even more important in the future. Another conceivable consequence of mercury being moved from the sea to the atmosphere is that the oceanic sink of mercury may be slightly less important. Simulations with a complex atmospheric chemistry model have shown results pointing in the same direction. In the lower troposphere the effect of increased temperature on slow-down of Hg oxidation was, comparing to the effect of the reaction rate only, magnified by the fact that Br concentrations decreased significantly in the +5K case. Thus, in a 5K warmer marine boundary layer the Hg0 oxidation rate was reduced by 40% resulting in c.a. 15% increase in concentrations of RGM. In higher altitudes the bromine concentrations were much lower, the dominating source was photolysis of halocarbons and there was only small temperature effect on concentrations. The effect of temperature on slow-down of oxidation of Hg0 was accordingly less pronounced.

Miljön ombord på fartyg är viktig för besättningens välbefinnande hälsa och arbetseffektivitet. Inomhusluftens kvalitet och termisk komfort är viktiga delar av innemiljön som inte har studerats så mycket på fartyg. Vid långa resor som varar veckor eller månader och kan passera flera klimatzoner finns inget sätt att byta miljö och ingen utväg från fartyget, och då blir god innemiljön extra viktig eftersom den utgör både arbetsmiljö och boendemiljö (innemiljö). Syftet med denna studie var att kartlägga hur innemiljön på svenska fartyg ser ut, föreslå en enkel övervakningsmetodik för innemiljö samt föreslå förbättringsåtgärder där det behövs. This report is only available in Swedish. You can find an English summary in the report.